Forest Systems

Evaluation of the impact of forest information on regional harvest planning and land productivity based on mixed-integer programming

Tohru Nakajima — 2026-07-17

Aim of study: To investigate the impact of site class information on forest operation and harvest planning using mixed-integer programming, silviculture regimes, and forest planning. Area of study: A privately owned Japanese cedar “sugi” (Cryptomeria japonica) plantation managed by a forestry association in a cool temperate mountain forest in Japan. Material and methods: Income and timber volume were estimated for each position, forest age, and stem diameter. Age-class distribution, harvest volume, required labor, profit, and other relevant metrics were compared over the forecast period using two optimized harvest plans incorporating status considerations, i.e., with or without site indices. Data were validated based on the premise and assumption that concentrating labor in well-positioned forest management units augments timber yield and improves profits by optimizing timber quality, reducing the proportion of biomass timber, and increasing the proportion of Grade-A timber. Main results: Accounting for status notably increased the total harvested volume by 5.7% over 24 quarters, with a significant 10.8% increase in revenue. Integrating site-class information facilitates efficient and sustainable forest management practices. Stand units with a favorable status may be prioritized for relatively shorter logging operations owing to declining labor availability. Thinning is less affected by a favorable status than clear-cutting, as thinning is financially subsidized, considerably reducing its economic impact. Conversely, logging in areas with poorer status poses risks because a slight decline in timber prices can negatively affect income and expenses. Research highlights: Incorporating site class information helps avoid unprofitable locations and improves harvest plans under constraints, such as labor requirements.

Effect of anthropogenic disturbances on leaf traits of woody species from a subtropical dry forest of Argentina

Florencia I. del Corro — 2026-07-17

Aim of study: To assess the effects of forest disturbances on two foliar attributes, leaf area (LA) and specific leaf area (SLA), of woody species in a semi-arid Chaco forest of Argentina. Disturbances are represented as different combinations of land management practices (removal of vegetation, logging, and fire). We evaluated intraspecific variation in LA and SLA of six native woody species using a quantitative approach. We also explored the effect of growth form (tree/shrub) and leaf periodicity (perennial/deciduous) on plant responses to disturbances, considering that these traits may determine variations in their behavior in response to such disturbances. Area of study: Subtropical semi-arid Chaco, Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina, South America. Material and methods: Leaves of mature individuals were measured in forests with three different land management histories: undisturbed for four decades (RC); rolled and subjected to selective wood extraction eight years before sampling (Rch+L); and rolled and followed by fire eight years before sampling (Rch+F). For each site, we measured 10 mature individuals of each of the six species studied, recording the maximum height and diameter at breast height (DBH), and harvested 20 leaves from each to measure leaf area (LA) and specific leaf area (SLA). Main results: All species significantly increased their LA and SLA in disturbed forests. Tree species had larger LA than shrubs, while shrubs exhibited higher SLA. Both traits presented higher values in deciduous species compared to perennial species, indicating that, after disturbances, these species could better capture released resources by increasing their foliar area. The community-weighted mean (CWM) of LA was highest in the Rch+L forest, likely reflecting the effect of increased light availability. Additionally, all disturbed forests showed a higher CWM of SLA. Research highlights: The changes observed in leaf traits at the species level, such as higher LA and SLA, which result in higher LA and SLA at the community level, suggest the adoption of more acquisitive strategies in disturbed communities, promoting higher resource capture and facilitating leaf tissue recovery. This may influence ecosystem functions, such as litter decomposition, productivity, and resource allocation for growth and reproduction. Monitoring foliar responses to disturbances in Chaco forests is critical for guiding sustainable management and conservation practices.

Temporal analysis of canopy gap distribution in natural forests: comparing managed and unmanaged stands using Quickbird and UltraCam-D imagery

Omid Amiri-Karbandy — 2026-07-07

Aim of study: To investigate and analyze the temporal and spatial distribution patterns of canopy gaps in managed and unmanaged forest stands using remote sensing images from different sources, emphasizing the relevance of these patterns in the context of natural processes and human interventions. Area of study: Managed and unmanaged stands of Dr. Bahramnia Forestry Plan, Hyrcanian forest, Golestan Province, Iran. Material and methods: High-resolution satellite imagery, including QuickBird (2007) and UltraCam-D (2011) digital aerial images, were utilized to detect canopy gaps. This study employed pixel-based classification methods, such as Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Maximum Likelihood (ML) algorithms, along with object-based methods, including Nearest Neighbor (NN), Random Forest (RF), Decision Tree (DT), and Bayes, for classification and to extract canopy gaps. Spatial distribution patterns were analyzed using the Nearest Neighbor Index, spatial autocorrelation, and clustering based on gap size, employing global Getis-Ord and local Moran’s I statistics. Main results: The results indicated that pixel-based classification methods achieved higher accuracy in mapping gap and non-gap areas, with the ML algorithm attaining 98.763% accuracy and a Kappa coefficient of 0.974 in 2007, and the SVM algorithm achieving 98.899% accuracy and a Kappa coefficient of 0.976 in 2011. The Nearest Neighbor Index revealed a regular spatial distribution of gaps in both managed and unmanaged stands. Clustering analysis showed distinct patterns for small, medium, and large gaps, with managed stands exhibiting clustering and unmanaged stands displaying random and regular patterns. Research highlights: This study underscores the importance of high-resolution remote sensing data and advanced classification algorithms for accurately mapping canopy gap dynamics, providing valuable insights for sustainable forest management.

Effect of light, temperature, storage duration and conditions on the germination of two Mediterranean conifers: Tetraclinis articulata and Cedrus atlantica

Meriem Bentekhici — 2026-07-28

Aim of study: This research aims to determine the optimal germination and storage Conditions for the seeds of two vulnerable Mediterranean conifers, Cedrus atlantica Manetti ex Carrière and Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Masters. Area of study: The seeds of C. atlantica and T. articulata were collected in northwestern Algeria. Material and methods: The effect of light [alternation of daylight and darkness (night) vs continuous darkness] and temperature (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 °C) on the germination behavior of the two species was examined. Subsequently, the variation of seeds viability under different storage Conditions (-20 °C, 5 °C, ambient temperature) and throughout various timeframes (6, 12, 18 and 24 months) was assessed. Main results: Daylight presence favored C. atlantica seed germination [final germination percentage (FGP) = 80%] whereas T. articulata germination was light-independent. Overall, temperature significantly affected the majority of the germination parameters of the two species (p < 0.01). The optimal temperature for seed germination of T. articulata and C. atlantica was 15 °C (FGP = 56%) and 20 °C (FGP =80%) respectively. The seeds of the two species were able to retain their viability after 24 months of storage, despite the decline in their germination percentage. The analysis of variance revealed a significant influence of storage Conditions on almost all the germination parameters of both species. Research highlights: The obtained results are crucial for the construction and management of seed banks, as they facilitate the effective conservation of the studied species. This involves the appropriate and well-scheduled renewal of accessions, which is essential to preserve their long-term integrity.

Recovery of forest cover and connectivity in a mountain ecosystem: evidence from Cofre de Perote National Park

Marco A. Espinoza-Guzmán — 2026-07-17

Aim of study: To assess changes in land-use and landscape connectivity in Cofre de Perote National Park (CPNP), Mexico, from 2017 to 2024, and to understand how different management subzones influence land-use and forest-connectivity dynamics. Knowing more about these processes is essential to guide adaptive management in protected areas facing landscape dynamics due to anthropogenic activities. Area of study: This study was carried out in a high-altitude protected area located in the center of the state of Veracruz, Mexico, including its designated buffer zone. Material and methods: We classified the land use and vegetation cover of the CPNP using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery at 10 m from 2017 to 2024, applying a Random Forest algorithm for classification. We assessed land use and land cover changes, as well as forest connectivity, across the park’s internal management subzones (22,330.47 ha), including forest restoration areas, traditional use, and public use zones, as well as a buffer zone located outside the park boundaries, using the Integral Index of Connectivity. Main results: From 2017 to 2024, forest cover increased by 1,290 ha within the park and 386 ha in the buffer zone, primarily replacing grasslands and, to a lesser extent, agricultural lands. Connectivity analysis showed significant improvements in forest cover connectivity values in the park, especially within the forest recovery subzone. However, traditional use and buffer zones exhibited mixed connectivity trends, with some areas experiencing declines due to land cover changes. Research highlights: Gains in forest cover and improved connectivity in key subzones represent an opportunity to increase ecosystem integrity and resilience in the face of threats posed by human activities around the CPNP. However, the situation in the buffer zone underscores the urgent need to implement integrated landscape management strategies that include the CPNP and adjacent areas to ensure long-term sustainability and resilience to current landscape dynamics.

Tree composition and carbon turnover dynamics across 22 years in a Costa Rican premontane moist forest fragment

Milena Cambronero — 2026-07-08

Aim of study: Tropical forests are increasingly threatened by deforestation and fragmentation. In Costa Rica, extensive land-use change has left forest fragments whose long-term ecological dynamics remain poorly understood. This study assessed changes in tree diversity, composition, structure, and aboveground carbon stocks during a 22-year period (2000-2022) in a premontane moist forest fragment in Costa Rica. Area of study: Municipal Forest of Atenas (26.4-ha), Alajuela, Costa Rica. Material and methods: Tree inventories were conducted in 32 plots (10 m radius) in 2000 and 33 plots in 2022. We analysed diversity and composition using Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, Hill numbers, and Importance Value Index, while tree structure and carbon stocks were assessed using tree size distributions, PERMANOVA, and allometric models. Main results: We identified 71 species and 69 genera in 2000 (N = 535), and 62 species and 60 genera in 2022 (N = 534). We found high compositional stability, with a 76% similarity in genus abundance between years, and consistent dominance by the early successional species Inga densiflora Benth and the invasive Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston. A gradual shift toward intermediate and late-successional genera suggests ongoing successional processes. Carbon storage more than doubled, from 1,847.2 to 3,903.7 tC (70.0 tC/ha in 2000 and 147.9 tC/ha in 2022), approaching values reported for old-growth tropical forests. These changes may be driven by the presence of large individuals of Ficus and Anacardium excelsum (Bertero & Balb.) Skeels, supporting the mass-ratio hypothesis. Research highlights: These findings underscore the ecological importance of conserving secondary forest fragments in human-modified tropical landscapes, which can support long-term forest recovery and contribute to ecological resilience, carbon storage and climate change mitigation.

The Spanish Network of Genetic Conservation Units: a cooperative tool for the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources under a changing environment

Marta Callejas-Díaz — 2026-07-07

Aim of study: Genetic diversity is essential for forest resilience in the context of climate change. With the aim of preserving the intraspecific genetic variation and the evolutionary dynamics of the main forest tree species throughout their distribution range, Spain is establishing a National Network of Genetic Conservation Units. Area of study: Genetic conservation units are selected across Spain according to the distribution range of each species, initially using national-scale regions of provenance to identify populations adapted to distinct local environmental conditions. Material and methods: The existing proposal consist of 298 in situ genetic conservation units (plus 32 backup units) involving 20 forest tree species (out of 62 species in total). The establishment of this National Network requires an important effort of coordination involving actors at the regional, national and international level, fieldwork, data analyses and monitoring. Main results: Thanks to an integrative workflow and an active collaboration among all actors involved, the implementation of the National Network of Genetic Conservation Units is thriving, with an essential effort in the characterization of the units (both genetically and in terms of their threats and conservation value). Research highlights: The characterization of the genetic conservation units aims to make scientifically-based decisions for prioritizing forest populations in conservation and sustainable management programs.

Research trends related to tropical timber species for the last four decades through scientometric analyses

Ximena Herrera-Alvarez — 2026-07-28

Aim of study: Dialogue among stakeholders is key for implementing sustainable forest management in tropical forests. However, in such multi-actor processes, the role and interest of a key stakeholder such as scientists is often overlooked. Hence, the aim of this work was to analyse the topics that forest scientists have related the most to the concept of “tropical timber species” during the last four decades. Area of study: World´s tropical forests. Material and methods: Scientometric analyses (co-word analysis), using Bibliometrix and Biblioshiny R packages with Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases. Main results: A total of 35,204 documents were identified that used the “tropical timber species” concept. Scientific productivity grew from one occurrence in 1980 to 31,457 occurrences by 2023, with 40% of all relevant scientific productivity generated in the 2018-2023 period. Dominant research themes were related to basic science on ecological structure (topics such as taxonomy and biodiversity, with 4,682 and 4,359 occurrences, respectively). However, climate change is quickly growing in importance (575 occurrences in 2018-2023). In fact, climate change has become a basic research topic, while applied themes such as ecosystem fragmentation, deforestation, forest management and remote sensing have become the themes more prevalent (as niche, motor or basic themes) in the last two years studied (2022-2023). Research highlights: Scientists are increasingly showing interest in applied topics related to management of tropical timber species. However, forest scientists are also mostly interested in research related to biodiversity, conservation and climate change when studying tropical timber species. Hence, such issues should be taken into account in multi-actor dialogues on sustainable tropical forest management.

Wild food from exotic conifer plantation and meadows in Patagonia (Argentina): nutritional and bioactive properties of edible mushrooms

Maximiliano Rugolo — 2026-07-27

Aim of study: Exotic conifer plantations and grasslands with livestock farming constitute widely distributed and extensive anthropized landscapes in Patagonia, Argentina, hosting a diversity of wild edible mushroom species that remain underexplored nutritionally and functionally. This study measured the chemical composition and bioactivity of exotic wild edible mushrooms (WEM) from Patagonia (Argentina). Area of study: The study was conducted in Chubut, Neuquén and Rio Negro provinces of Patagonia, Argentina. Material and methods: Seven WEM species from anthropized meadows and pine plantations [Agaricus campestris L., Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Gray, Leucocoprinus leucothites (Vittad.) Redhead, Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer, Suillus lakei (Murrill) A.H.Sm. & Thiers, Suillus luteus (L.: Fries) Gray and Rhizopogon roseolus (Corda) Th.Fr.] were assessed regarding their proximal composition (fatty acids, organic acids, soluble sugars, phenolic compounds, and ergosterol), their antioxidant activities (TBARS [Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances] and OxHLIA [oxidative haemolysis inhibition assay)], and antimicrobial activities. Main results: Carbohydrates ranged from 39.00 g/100 g dw (dry weight) in A. campestris to 79.20 g/100 g dw in S. luteus. Significantly higher values were found for total fat in S. lakei (3.90 g/100 g dw), Lactarius deliciosus (3.84) and S. luteus (3.80). Crude protein was highest in A. campestris (32.6 g/100 g dw) followed by Leucocoprinus leucothites (18.80 g/100 g dw), while energy was higher for Lactarius deliciosus and S. luteus (396.70 Kcal/100 g dw and 396.00 Kcal/100 g dw, respectively). In total, 27 fatty acids were identified and quantified; polyunsatured fatty acids (PUFAs) were the main group, with high amounts of linoleic acid (C18:2), present in all species. The most effective extracts regarding the antioxidant capacity (TBARS) were those of A. campestris and S. lakei. The antibacterial effects were particularly pronounced against Yersinia enterocolitica while the antifungal activity was strongest against Aspergillus brasiliensis, with the extracts of S. luteus and A. campestris being the most effective, respectively. Research highlights: Pine plantations and grasslands from the Andean Patagonian region host numerous WEM that can be used as an alternative source of food, with high nutritional and bioactive benefits. They can help to achieve food sovereignty, and enhance activities such as mycogastronomy, mycotherapy, mycotourism and the production of functional foods from these environments.

Enhancing morphophysiological traits by inoculating a neotropical pine (Pinus teocote) with edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms grown in environmentally friendly substrates

Magdalena Martínez-Reyes — 2026-07-28

Aim of study: To evaluate the effect of inoculating Pinus teocote Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham. plants, a neotropical pine species highly resilient to stress conditions, with two edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, Laccaria proxima (Boud.) Pat. and Suillus pungens Thiers & A.H.Sm., on their growth and physiological quality. The plants were grown in different environmentally friendly substrate combinations. Area of study: Bioassays were conducted in the greenhouses of the Colegio de Postgraduados in Texcoco, Mexico. Material and methods: The influence of L. proxima and S. pungens on P. teocote was assessed through growth and physiological parameters using three distinct substrate formulations, two of which incorporated mixtures of sawdust and compost. The evaluated variables included plant biomass, photosynthesis, transpiration, chlorophyll a, b, and total chlorophyll content, as well as carotenoids and ectomycorrhizal colonization, measured 570 days after sowing. Main results: High ectomycorrhizal colonization, exceeding 84%, was recorded in the plants grown in sawdust and compost mixtures. Additionally, increases in biomass and physiological quality were observed in these plants compared to non-inoculated plants. Depending on the substrate mixtures evaluated, the inoculation with S. pungens produced higher transpiration and chlorophyll a, b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoid content than that with L. proxima. Research highlights: It was demonstrated that the production of ectomycorrhizal Pinus teocote plants in greenhouse, with high morphophysiological quality and elevated mycorrhization rates, is feasible when using environmentally friendly substrates.

Wild mushroom productivity in timber plantations: a case study of Pinus radiata in Galicia, north-western Spain

Javier Pereira-Espinel Plata — 2026-07-20

Aim of study: (i) to evaluate wild mushroom productivity in a fast-growing Pinus radiata D.Don stand managed under four thinning treatments; (ii) to determine allometric relationships for seven mushroom species as a tool for future non-destructive inventory of fresh weight yield; and (iii) to compare the total productivity of two species of Boletus for three classes of sporocarp quality and the relationship with fruit development and size. Area of study: Pinus radiata thinning trial, Bóveda Communal Forest, Begonte, Galicia, north-western Spain. Material and methods: The productivity of seven marketable and two additional edible wild mushroom species was evaluated in a thinning trial in a Pinus radiata D.Don stand aged 32 years at the end of the observations. Sample plots of 20 × 20 m were evaluated over a period of 6 years (4 plots), 4 years (12 plots) and 2 years (12 plots). Four thinning treatments were applied in the plots: no thinning (control); light thinning from below; moderate thinning from below; and selective thinning. The mushroom inventories began 8 years after the last thinning operation. Average dimensions and allometric relationships of sporocarps were determined for seven mushroom species. The distribution of three quality classes of two Boletus species was also determined. Seasonal patterns of productivity of commercial species were established, with Boletus pinophilus Pilát & Dermek being the only species producing fruiting bodies in spring. Main results: The following marketable species were identified, in decreasing order of productivity: B. pinophilus, Hydnum repandum L., Lactarius quieticolor Romagn., Imleria badia (Fr.) Vizzini, Boletus edulis Bull., Suillus luteus (L.) Roussel and Tricholoma portentosum (Fr.) Quél. Two edible non-marketable species Clitopilus prunulus (Scop.) P. Kumm. and Laccaria amethystina Cooke were also identified. The total yield of edible species was 58.5 kg ha^-1 year^-1 and the thinning intensity did not have a significant effect on the total edible or marketable mushroom productivity, which was more affected by the distance of the plot relative to the edge with firebreaks. The average size of sporocarps, in terms of both weight and diameter, decreased in the following order: B. pinophilus > B. edulis > S. luteus ≈ I. badia > Lactarius quieticolor > T. portentosum > H. repandum. The quality of boletes was closely related to the cap diameter, with the probability of occurrence of fruiting bodies with white hymenium and firm flesh decreasing in sporocarps larger than 7-8 cm. Quality classes 1 and 2 tended to be maintained for larger sizes of B. edulis than of B. pinophilus. Overall, 51% of the fresh weight of B. pinophilus harvested was classified in classes 1 or 2, whereas the corresponding figure was 69% for B. edulis. Research highlights: Mushroom productivity in the radiata pine stand under study was similar to the average values obtained for native pine species in Spain and may be relevant to the management of these fast-growing plantations.

Durable resistance to pine wilt disease in Pinus pinaster: evidence of nematode elimination in asymptomatic genotypes

Raquel Díaz — 2026-06-03

Aim of study: To determine if specific Pinus pinaster trees exhibit resistance or tolerance to pine wilt disease, and to clarify whether artificially inoculated nematodes survive or are eliminated in asymptomatic plants. Area of study: Experiments were conducted in the greenhouse facilities of the Lourizán Forest Research Center (42° 24′ 33″ N, 8° 39′ 46″ W, Pontevedra, Spain). Material and methods: This study involved two sets of assays. In the first set, seedlings from 32 families of the Galician P. pinaster breeding program were artificially inoculated with Bursaphelenchus xylophilus three times over a year. Only 23 plants remained asymptomatic by the assay´s end, and four of these continued to be asymptomatic fifteen months after the final inoculation. At that point, these four ‘mother plants’ were clonally propagated via cuttings. Both the mother plants and their cuttings were subsequently checked for nematode presence at various time points. The second set of experiments comprised three inoculation experiments, evaluating clones derived from nematode-resistant P. pinaster parents of families. At the conclusion of these assays (109-141 days after inoculation), each plant was assigned a symptom stage, and nematode density was assessed. From each assay, 15 asymptomatic plants were sampled for nematode counting at 8 and 18 months post-inoculation. Main results: In the nematode counting performed in mother plants fifteen months following the last inoculation, nematodes were extracted solely from a section below the inoculation point of a single mother plant. Years later, none of the mother plants or their cuttings contained nematodes. In the inoculations experiments with resistant clones, only 16.5% of the plants that remained asymptomatic at the end of the assays contained nematodes. Research highlights: The possibility of producing pine wood nematode-free resistant plants by grafting or cutting is crucial to control pine wilt disease progression.

Predisposing factors and spatio-temporal dynamics in two co-occurring cone pests in Pinus pinea (Leptoglossus occidentalis and Dioryctria mendacella)

Rafael Calama — 2026-07-27

Aim of study: To assess the impact of the exotic western conifer seed bug Leptoglossus occidentalis (WCSB), and the native pine cone moth, Dioryctria mendacella (PCM), two pests simultaneously feeding on cones and nuts of Pinus pinea; to identify the potential exogenous and endogenous factors controlling the impact of each pest, and to evaluate the occurrence of synergies and trade-offs between the pests. Area of study: Spanish Northern Plateau. Material and methods: Annual data on cone, nut and severity from each pest, collected in an extensive net of 52 plots (250 trees) installed in pure-even aged forests of Pinus pinea, covering nine years (2013-2021). Given the structure of the data and the proposed conceptual modelling, structural equation modelling (SEM) and path analysis were used. Main results: We observed an increasing pattern on the severity due to WCSB in the recent years, which may affect over 60% of pine nuts, while PCM tended to show a constant pattern, affecting on average 20% of the cones. Rate of severity of each pest was directly affected by the average size of a single cone, which was controlled by annual rainfall and stand age. Moreover, rising temperatures and age also exerted a direct and positive effect over the rate of severity of both pests, while the total amount of available cones in the year exerted a direct and negative effect. Complex temporal interactions between pest severities were identified. Research highlights: Severity of both pests is influenced by exogenous and endogenous factors, which may be aggravated under scenarios of climate change. These results support adaptive silviculture aimed at maintaining high cone availability to dilute pest impact.

Operational use of mass-trapping to study and suppress Monochamus galloprovincialis (Col.: Cerambycidae) populations: a field case

Estela Sánchez-Husillos — 2026-07-29

Aim of the study: To investigate mass trapping as a less invasive and cost-effective alternative to large-scale clear-cutting for controlling Monochamus galloprovincialis (Olivier, 1795), the primary vector of the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner & Buhrer, 1934) Nickle, 1970, the causal agent of pine wilt disease (PWD) in southern European coniferous forests. Area of study: Two field experiments were conducted in a 209 ha Pinus pinaster Aiton stand in Pino del Río (Palencia, Spain). Additionally, long-term PWD management was evaluated in the demarcated area of Sancti-Spiritus (Salamanca, Spain). Material and methods: Beetle population size was estimated using capture-mark-recapture (CMR) and analyzed with the Jolly-Seber model. Trapping efficiency at different trap densities was assessed using generalized linear models. Long-term disease management combined mass trapping with the removal of symptomatic trees over a 10-year period. Main results: Trap densities of 0.11, 0.44, and 1 trap/ha removed 19.3%, 67.4%, and 85% of the beetle population, respectively. Logistic regression predicted near-complete suppression at 1.8 traps/ha. In Sancti-Spiritus, after 10 years of integrated management, no positive results were found in plant or insect vector samples, and the disease was considered eradicated from the demarcated area. Research highlights: Mass trapping is a viable alternative or complement to clear-cutting in PWD management, particularly in high-risk areas where terrain complexity or forest stand conditions hinder effective tree and debris removal.